29, Correspondence to Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. TITLE: Stouffer, S. A., Suchman, E. A., DeVinney, L. C., Star, S. A., & Williams Jr, R. M. (1949). In turn, each party extends and intensifies the conflict by reacting in a punitive or defensive way to the other partys behavior. There are also a number of beliefs implicated in intergroup conflicts, such as perceptions of superiority, injustice, vulnerability, distrust, and helplessness transferred from one group to another. Limited support was found for the moderating effect of intergroup contact. There should not be official laws enforcing segregation. Additionally, people from different groups may be unfamiliar with or even distrustful of each other, which can further contribute to conflict (Fisher, 2000). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_289, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_289, eBook Packages: Behavioral ScienceReference Module Humanities and Social Sciences. In: W. Austin and S. Worchel, ed.. Turner, J., 1982. Contact Hypothesis and Inter-Age Attitudes: A Field Study of Cross-Age Contact. This is because groups that are dependent on each other are often in a position where they must compete with each other for scarce resources. Journal of personality and social psychology, 90(5), 751. While some theorists believed that contact between in groups, such as between races, bred suspicion, fear, resentment, disturbance, and at times open conflict (Baker, 1934), others, such as Lett (1945), believed that interracial contact led to mutual understanding and regard.. December They may gain a stake in perpetuating hostilities so that they will not lose their power and privileges to civilian authorities (Rusch & Gavrilets, 2020). The logic of animal intergroup conflict: A review. In: H. Tajfel, ed., Social identity and intergroup relations. The p. Turner, J. C. (1975). Add your e-mail address to receive free newsletters from SCIRP. Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. In: JSTOR. by | Jun 3, 2022 | chrysler 300 won t shift gears | which muscle can easily be damaged during makeup application? Both groups perceive the other to be of equal status in the situation (Cohen, 1982; Riordan and Ruggiero, 1980; Pettigrew and Tropp, 2005). This dissertation developed and assessed a measure of health service provider SGM competency and suggested that health care providers view their competency regarding SGM individuals in a holistic manner, without differentiating between knowledge, attitude, and skill. In W. G. Austin, & S. Worchel (Eds. In such contexts, immoral behaviour perpetrated by outgroup members may encourage the inference that the outgroup is an essentially immoral entity (Reeder & Brewer, 1979 . Kanas, A., Scheepers, P., & Sterkens, C. (2015). In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds. Meanwhile, the conflict-spiral model contends that conflict breeds conflict. Ranging from theoretical contributions to empirical studies, the readings in this volume address the key issues of organizational identity, and show how these issues have developed through contributions from such diverse fields of study as sociology, psychology, management studies and cultural studies. The results lead to extend this method to other social disabilities. You can download the paper by clicking the button above. Abstract This reprinted chapter originally appeared in Intergroup relations: Essential readings, Key readings in social psychology, 2001, pp. Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behavior. An integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict Previous studies Gap and objectives Individual psychology of intergroup relations has focused on patterns of individual prejudice and discrimination The Authoritarian Personality (Adorno et al, 1950) RCT does not focus on the development and maintenance of group identity An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. ABSTRACT: Several researches have been conducted on the nature, character and causes of underdevelopment in Africa. There are several types of beliefs that commonly lead to intergroup conflict. This often leads to a sense of entitlement and a desire to protect that heritage from contamination by outsiders. Simply Scholar Ltd. 20-22 Wenlock Road, London N1 7GU, 2023 Simply Scholar, Ltd. All rights reserved, 2023 Simply Psychology - Study Guides for Psychology Students, Intergroup conflict: Individual, group, and collective interests, Constructive intergroup competition as a solution to the free rider problem: A field experiment, Intergroup relations: insights from a theoretically integrative approach. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. Baker, P. E. (1934). Consequently, a continuing spiral of escalation ensues, trapping both parties. Post author: Post published: February 17, 2022 Post category: polymorphous light eruption treatment Post comments: lactose intolerance worse in summer lactose intolerance worse in summer Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. As the world faces an array of increasingly pervasive and dangerous social conflicts--race riots, ethnic cleansing, the threat of terrorism, labor disputes, and violence against women, children, and the elderly, to name a few--the study of how groups relate has taken on a role of vital importance to our society. Social geography: race and racism. Tajfel, H. (1978). Much of the work on the social psychology of intergroup relations has focused on patterns of individual prejudices and discrimination and on the motivational sequences of interpersonal interaction. While this paper does not join issues with these scholars, it however focuses on locating the dilemma of social identity as the missing factor in all inter personal relationships in Africa with special bias for the relationship between the led and the leaders. A small case group study based on international expertise in social categorization and communication was conducted in France. Social categorization and intergorup behavior. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Historically, in contact hypothesis research, racial and ethnic minorities have been the out-group of choice; however, the hypothesis can extend to out-groups created by a number of factors. Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C., Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979). In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds. Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. This thesis examines intergroup factors that may prevent a successful organisational merger. Godwyns Ade Agbude, Nchekwube Excellence-Oluye, Joy Godwyns-Agbude, KEYWORDS: The application of attachment theory within intergroup contexts is novel and the positive results found by Mikulincer and Shaver are truly remarkable. Towards a cognitive redefinition of the group. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. The researchers found that the more voyages that white seamen took with black seamen, the more positive their racial attitudes became. Social Psychology Quarterly, 47(1), 74-80. doi:10.2307/3033890. (2020). Erev, I., Bornstein, G., & Galili, R. (1993). Jackson, J. W. (1993). The reduction of intergroup tensions: a survey of research on problems of ethnic, racial, and religious group relations. This book is of particular value because it provides important insights into Tajfel's thinking and growth as a scholar throughout this process, and how this research, spanning decades, eventually evolved into what becomes known as social identity theory. Social identity theory was developed as an integrative theory, as it aimed to connect cognitive processes and behavioral motivation. Allport, G. W. (1955). Self- and interpersonal evaluations: Esteem theories versus consistency theories. This analysis of long-term unemployment was done through the consequences for relationships with work with a view to suggesting a suitable remedial approach. Publication language English Pages 15pp Date published 01 Jan 1979 Type Books Keywords Conflict, violence & peace The aim of this chapter is to present an outline of a theory of intergroup conflict and some preliminary data relating to the theory. A content analysis across five journals. For that reason, the theory was originally referred to as the social identity theory of intergroup relations. Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Among these are the aggressor-defender, conflict-spiral, and structural change models. Brewer, M. B., & Kramer, R. M. (1985). Personality and social psychology review, 7 (2), 129-145. 2, pp. Three possible reasons for the recognition his work still enjoys are proposed: its potential to generate theoretical and empirical controversies; its explanatory power; and the extent to which his work is used as a referential framework. Unlike the conflict-spiral model, however, this view holds that certain enduring changes take place that perpetuate the conflict. Blair, I. V., Park, B., & Bachelor, J. When we make ethnic identity salient to Asian-American subjects, they make more patient choices. Research on group identification has shown it to be a surprisingly weak predictor of intentions to take large-scale social action. There are also a number of structural factors that can contribute to the intensity of the intergroup conflict. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Share on Facebook . An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict Author (s) Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. These are the sources and citations used to research Psychology. Meanwhile, intergroup conflict occurs between teams that most often have adversarial goals, such as between warring nations or competing companies (Eidelson & Eidelson, 2003). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict, Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. The aim of this chapter is to present an outline of a theory of intergroup conflict and some preliminary data relating to the theory. Theory and practice, 166-184. This is because there are more potential sources of disagreement and more opportunities for people with different opinions to come into contact with each other. Are you ready to take control of your mental health and relationship well-being? Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). (1998). Ecological Model of Four Domains of Active Living Components of the Health Belief Model Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behavior Integrated Behavioral Model Comparative Outcomes of Health Promotion Interventions Theoretical (Stress Prevention, Stress-Buffering, and Direct Effect) Models and Pathways Linking Social Support to . Additionally, Allport was influenced by his doctoral students Bernard Kramer (1950) and Barbara MacKenzi (1948), noting that intergroup contact can both reduce and exacerbate prejudice, and finally accounting for these consistencies by adopting four positive factors for deprejudizing group contact reminiscent of Williams (1947): Members of the contact situation should not have an unequal, hierarchical relationship (e.g., teacher/student, employer/employee). H. Tajfel, J. C. Turner, "An integrative theory of intergroup conflict" in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, W. G. Austin, S. Worchel, Eds. Social Identity Theory (SIT; Tajfel, 1978; Tajfel & Turner, 1979) begins with the premise that individuals define their own identities with regard to social groups and that such identifications work to protect and bolster self-identity. Indeed, Allport cited Williams, Brophy, Stouffer, et al. The theoretical orientation outlined here is intended not to replace the R.C.T., but to supplement it in some respects that seem essential for an adequate social psychology of intergroup conflictparticularly as the understanding of the psychological aspects of social change cannot be achieved without an appropriate analysis of the social psychology of social conflict. Members should work together in a non-competitive environment. By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. For example, two countries that are vying for control of the same piece of land are likely to come into conflict with each other (Fisher, 2000). Abstract The aim of this chapter is to present an outline of a theory of intergroup conflict and some preliminary data relating to the theory. In this conflict perspective, the initial source of friction may be consequential. http://www.bbcprisonstudy.org/resources.php?p=59, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bgarc9vSj5I, Grenoble Ecole de Management and Insper Institute for Education and Research, 12 Rue Pierre Semard, 38000, Grenoble, France, You can also search for this author in Social identity is a person's sense of who they are based on their group membership (s). However, rather than focusing on the initial cause of the conflict, the conflict-spiral model describes the dynamic, interactive process by which individuals or groups find themselves caught in an upward spiral of hostilities (Rusch & Gavrilets, 2020). It concludes by arguing for the necessity of class suicide of the political class and also cognitive re-orientation of the led through education. The results indicate that Tajfels work on intergroup relations is increasingly cited, especially since the 1990s, and the international recognition of his work is substantial. An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict H. Tajfel, and J. Turner. Hardin, R. (1995). Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behaviour. When I equals we: Exploring the relation between social and personal identity of extreme right-wing political party members. The meta-analysis showed that the positive effects of contact on group relations vary dramatically between the nature of the groups, such as age, sexual orientation, disability, and mental illness, with the largest contact effects emerging for contact between heterosexuals and non-heterosexuals. When and How School Desegregation Improves Intergroup Relations. Finally, the structural-change model of intergroup conflict is also concerned with the dynamic interaction between parties in the course of the conflict. In a single chapter of his book, The Nature of Prejudice, Gordon Allport (1955) attempts to address the question of what happens when groups interact through his intergroup contact hypothesis.. Public opinion quarterly, 9(4), 456-466. 1. When you visit our website, it stores data on your device in what is commonly called "cookies"information about how you interact with the site. Resilience is a dynamic process of positive adaptation and recovery from adversity. The creation of group identities involves both the categorization of ones in-group with regard to an out-group and the tendency to view ones own group with a positive bias vis-a-vis the out-group. This can be at an individual level, such as when a person feels powerless, or at the group level, such as when a country feels it cannot defend itself against another countrys aggression. First, however, this approach to intergroup behavior and intergroup conflict is set in context in relation to other approaches to the same problems. The aggressor is seen as motivated by evil and illegitimate aims, while the one being aggressed upon by noble, morally correct, and legitimate motivations. This had consequences such as a lack of transmission of work skills and culture, poor preparation for parenthood, and generally inaccurate stereotypes and unfavorable attitudes toward other age groups. Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. This desire can lead to intergroup prejudice and conflict. Contact in anon-contactsociety: The case of South Africa. It has received 13201 citation (s) till now. European Journal of Social Psychology, 5, 514. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. Sociology of Sport Journal, 2(4), 323-333. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149-178. Sims, V. M., & Patrick, J. R. (1936). (1945). Experiments in intergroup discrimination. These feelings of helplessness can lead to a sense of despair or even resignation. 183196). Google Scholar. Journal of Negro Education, 194-204. Lee, Farrell, and Link (2004) used data from a national survey of public attitudes toward homeless people to evaluate the applicability of the contact hypothesis to relationships between homeless and housed people, even in the absence of Allports four positive factors. INTERGROUP CONTACT THEORY. To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds toupgrade your browser. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 6(2), 151-169. doi:10.1177/1368430203006002002. Researchers have criticized Allports positive factors approach because it invites the addition of different situational conditions thought to be crucial that actually are not. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). SHARES. VIEWS. Additionally, groups that are dependent on each other may also feel threatened by each other, leading to further conflict (Fisher, 2000). Organizational identity: A reader, 56 (65), 9780203505984-16. . The more dependent one group is on another for example if one group needs the resources of another group in order to survive the more likely it is that they will come into conflict. Residential contact as a determinant of attitudes toward Negroes. Social Identification Dimensions as Mediators of the Effect of Prototypicality on Intergroup Behaviours, Endurance Analysis of Automotive Vehicles Door W/H System Using Finite Element Analysis, Hydrogen Bonds of C=S, C=Se and C=Te with C-H in Small-Organic Molecule Compounds Derived from the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD), A New Explanation of K. J. Arrows Impossibility Theorem: On Conditions of Social Welfare Functions, Use of Social Cognitive Theory to Assess Salient Clinical Research in Chronic Disease Self-Management for Older Adults: An Integrative Review. Add your e-mail address to receive free newsletters from SCIRP. Social Dominance Theory and Religion. Bornstein, G. (2003). Following a resurgence of religion-related conflict and religiously motivated intolerance and violence and the 1999-2002 outbreak of sectarian violence in Ambon, Indonesia, between Christians and Muslims, researchers have become motivated to find ways to reduce acts of religiously motivated intolerance. Researchers such as Deutsch and Collins (1951); Wilner, Walkley, and Cook (1955); and Works (1961) supported mounting evidence that contact diminished racial prejudice among both blacks and whites through their studies of racially desegregated housing projects. Folkways: The Sociological Importance of Usages. Brown, R. (2000). There is, however, considerable debate about which entity or entities are . An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict. It has been around since the beginning of time and has played a role in shaping human history. BSc (Hons), Psychology, MSc, Psychology of Education. In T. Postmes & N. R. Branscombe (Eds. Intergroup relations: insights from a theoretically integrative approach. When I equals we: Exploring the relation between social and personal identity of extreme right-wing political party members. Social Science Research Council Bulletin. On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport, 262-277. (2000). For example, the strategic arms limitation talks and summits between the United States and the Soviet Union caused a step-by-step retreat from nuclear confrontation (Rusch & Gavrilets, 2020). Tajfel, H. and Turner, J., 1979. The Role of Threats in the Racial Attitudes of Blacks and Whites. Rusch, H., & Gavrilets, S. (2020). Goal Interdependence and Interpersonal-personal Attraction in Heterogeneous Classrooms: a meta analysis, chapter in Miller N & Brewer MB Groups in Contact: The Psychology of Desegregation. Male and Female Suicide Bombers: Different Sexes, Different Reasons?. In this thoroughly updated and expanded second edition, major international . Simply Scholar Ltd. 20-22 Wenlock Road, London N1 7GU, 2023 Simply Scholar, Ltd. All rights reserved, 2023 Simply Psychology - Study Guides for Psychology Students. Negotiating the public realm: Stigma management and collective action among the homeless. Initially, its main focus was on intergroup conflict and intergroup relations more broadly. Kanas, Scheepers, and Sterrkens believed that this effect could be explained by perceived group threat. Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. The contact hypothesis fundamentally rests on the idea that ingroups who have more interactions with a certain outgroup tend to develop more positive perceptions and fewer negative perceptions of that outgroup. The essay is structured in four sections. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict Henri Tajfel, John C. Turner 1 Institutions (1) 31 Dec 2000 - pp 33-47 About: The article was published on 2001-01-01 and is currently open access. In this book, Allport proposed the contact hypothesis, which posits that increased contact between members of different groups will lead to reduced prejudice and, ultimately, conflict. This causes the cognitive traits of the in-group to be reinforced to guarantee their survival and determine the ability with . De-escalation of intergroup conflict can occur in a spiral fashion. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31, pp.304-326. These studies ranged from the 1940s to the year 2000 and represented responses from 250,493 individuals across 38 countries. The two groups share similar statuses, interests, and tasks; the situation fosters personal, intimate intergroup contact; participants do not fit stereotypical conceptions of their group members; Does positive interreligious contact reduce, while negative interreligious contact induces negative attitudes towards the religious out-group? Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2005). These feelings of vulnerability can lead to a desire for self-protection or even preemptive strikes. 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Patricia L. Obst, Katherine M. White, Kenneth I. Mavor, Rosland M. Baker, Byeong-Sam Kim, Kyoungwoo Park, Young-Woo Kim, Dikima D. Bibelayi, Albert S. Lundemba, Philippe V. Tsalu, Pitchouna I. Kilunga, Jules M. Tshishimbi, Zphirin G. Yav, Kimberly Sell, Elaine Amella, Martina Mueller, Jeannette Andrews, Joy Wachs. An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict. The handbook of conflict resolution. Caspi (1984) assessed the effects of cross-age contact on the attitudes of children toward older adults by comparing children attending an age-integrated preschool to children attending a traditional preschool. Intergroup conflict has a number of aggravating factors, such as group size, group composition, goal incompatibility, dependence, and structural factors. Hewstone, M., & Greenland, K. (2000). Ingroup identification, social dominance orientation, and differential intergroup social allocation. Vol.3 No.4, LeVine, R. A., & Campbell, D. T. (1972). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. All in all, Allports hypothesis neither reveals the processes behind the factors leading to the intergroup contact effect nor its effects on outgroups not involved in contact (Pettigrew, 1998). Brewer and Miller (1996) and Brewer and Brown (1998) suggest that these conditions can be viewed as an application of dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957). Perspectives such as those in Jackson (1983) and Levine and Campbell (1972) make similar predictions. Human Relations in Interracial Housing: A Study of the Contact Hypothesis. New York: Praeger. One example of vulnerability leading to intergroup conflict is the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States. ), The social psychology of inter-group relations (pp. The readings examine questions such as how organizations understand who they are, why organizations develop a sense of identity and belonging where the boundaries of identity lie and the implications of postmodern and critical theories' challenges to the concept of identity as deeply-rooted and authentic. From I to We: social identity and the collective self. One such person to do so was Floyd Allport, who published The Nature of Prejudice in 1954. Intergroup conflict refers to any disagreement or confrontation between the members of at least two different groups. United Kingdom, Tel: +44 (0) 20 7922 0421 Your Bibliography: Tajfel, H. and Turner, J., 1979. which people belonged to were an important source of pride and self-esteem. 2009, International Journal of Psychology. Your Bibliography: Baray, G., Postmes, T. and Jetten, J., 2009. As a result, following this logic, the ones being aggressed must increase their deterrent power to ensure that the aggressors cannot reach their goals (Rusch & Gavrilets, 2020). Abstract A section. The relationships between people's patterns of identification (with their work group and with the organization) and their perceptions of intergroup competition for scarce . The luxury of anti-Negro prejudice. The conflict began as a peaceful protest against the government but quickly escalated into a full-blown civil war when the government began to crack down on the protesters, leading to a cycle of violence (Eidelson & Eidelson, 2003). Your Bibliography: Turner, J., 1982. Terrorism and Political Violence, 21, pp.499-515. One example of helplessness leading to intergroup conflict is the Rwandan genocide. International Journal of Group Tensions, 23(1), 43-65. A third set of beliefs that can lead to intergroup conflict is the belief that one is vulnerable to harm from others. The Social identity theory was originated from two British social psychologists - Henri Tajfel and John Turner in 1979, and states that "part of a person's concept of self comes from the groups to which that person belongs". Noida, India 17 miracles snake story +91 9313127275 ; contraction de texte en ligne neeraj@enfinlegal.com Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 151167. curtis wayne wright jr wife. Rezensionen werden nicht berprft, Google sucht jedoch gezielt nach geflschten Inhalten und entfernt diese, I THE ROOTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL IDENTITY IN SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, II EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL IDENTITY THEORY, III RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ORGANIZATIONAL IDENTITY THEORY. Anja Eller, Dominic Abrams, Dominic Abrams. Henri Tajfel's greatest contribution to psychology was social identity theory. Leadership, Politics, Social Identity, Development, African States, JOURNAL NAME: The smallest contact effects happened between those with and without mental and physical disabilities (Pettigrew and Tropp, 2005). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Messick, D. M., & Mackie, D. M. (1989). 33-47). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(1), 6480. However, there is a critical need to "broaden and build" this line of work in order to better understand its limitations, generalizability, and underlying mediators and moderators . In: W. Austin and S. Worchel, ed., The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations.. Montery, CA: Brookes-Cole. Renfro, C. L. (2002). Socio Psychological Counseling: How to Manage Identities? The Hutu majority in Rwanda felt helpless against the Tutsi minority, leading to the mass slaughter of Tutsis (Eidelson & Eidelson, 2003). TITLE: Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell. animals that live in ice caves. Philippe Castel, Brigitte Minondo-Kaghad, Marie-Franoise Lacassagne, KEYWORDS: 173-190). 1 This research has concerned such diverse topics as perceptions of group membership, behavioral consequences of categorizing oneself and others into groups, or the effects of situational and personality differences on intergroup PubMedGoogle Scholar. (1980). Chicago: Nelson-Hall. Hogg, M. A., & Williams, K. D. (2000). 183195). On the dimensionality of organizational justice: a construct validation of a measure. Sumner believed that because most groups believed themselves to be superior, intergroup hostility and conflict were natural and inevitable outcomes of contact. The Oxford Handbook of Intergroup Conflict brings these perspectives together to encourage a more integrative approach to the study of intergroup conflict and peace. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). The aggressor-defender model of intergroup conflict is one that dominates the thinking of many leaders in public life. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Several scholars have suggested distinguishing between different types of conflict. The prejudice-interaction hypothesis from the point of view of the Negro minority group. In-group love and out-group hate as motives for individual participation in intergroup conflict: A new game paradigm. When are we better than them and they worse than us? One important factor is group size. Producing equal-status interracial interaction: A replication. Social dominance theory describes how processes at different levels of social organization, from ideologies to institutionalized discrimination work together to form and maintain a group based dominance. ), The social psychology of inter-group relations (pp. an integrative theory of intergroup conflict 1979 citationwestern sydney wanderers u13. The recommended socio psychological counseling is based on reconstructing the professional identity of the long-term unemployed person and implementing this before the return to a supported role that should serve as a springboard towards permanent employment. The more incompatible the goals of the two groups are, the more likely it is that they will come into conflict with each other.
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